Questions On Personal Ethical Framework - 1203 Words

Before I begin to share my personal ethical framework I want to first state how difficult this process has been. Through the course of class, I have discovered that evaluating yourself if leaps and bounds more difficult than evaluating others, well at least it was for me. The course readings have been very influential, and very telling as it relates to building my own ethical framework. While I feel personally that I naturally was drawn to the Frankl reading, I was caught off guard in realizing that my ethical framework had also been influenced by the Palmer text. After thoughtful deliberation and reflection I decided to use the acronym of C.A.R.E. to present my personal ethical framework. C-Create community to build humanity A-Always have faith, hope, love and a willingness to serve others R-Raise up the next generation of leaders E-Encourage people to follow their dreams I chose C.A.R.E. as the word itself expresses part of my ethical framework, and each piece ties in to that particular ethic. First I will discuss the â€Å"C† or Creating community to build humanity. The Frankl book, â€Å"Man’s Search for Meaning† really brought this aspect alive for me. In the book Viktor Frankl spends time, effort and energy building community, amid the Germans attempt to destroy any effort at humanity. Frankl was successful in building community and it helped to sustain and keep humanity intact. Building community has been a large part of my life’s work both professionally and personally.Show MoreRelatedThe Importance of Critical Thinking and Ethical Decision Making on Social Work1149 Words   |  5 PagesIt is my belief that in order for someone in the social work profession to serve vulnerable populations it was intended to serve, it is imperative to use critical thinking and ethical dec ision making in tandem to achieve the optimal result. The balance is a delicate and often complex. It requires a close examination or critically thinking, of all the issues not just within yourself, but the community as a whole, the individuals within it, and the client population that the social work serves. TheRead MoreWhy The Selling Of Customer Information At Outside Parties Creates An Ethical Dilemma1557 Words   |  7 PagesThis report is to evaluate and to make a determination on whether the selling of customer information to outside parties creates an ethical dilemma to an organization. It will investigate whether the implementation of this new method of revenue generation will create an ethical conflict with the website disclosure that â€Å"We will not sell our customer’s personal information to anyone, for any purpose. Period.† Introduction Companies have globalized, all over the world and social media has become aRead MoreEthical And Ethical Decision Making1500 Words   |  6 Pagesmore important than others, ethical decision making is a skill that has become increasingly pivotal. Jones states that a ‘moral issue is present where a person’s action, when freely performed, may harm or benefit others’ and defines ‘an ethical decision is a decision that is both legally and morally acceptable to the larger community’ (1991, p. 387). In order to create a company wide culture of ethics, employees must believe that the organization has a desire to be ethical and see proof of this fromRead MoreThe Evolutions Of Social Media1585 Words   |  7 PagesThe nursing student faces an ethical dilemma on whether to accept or to not accept a client’s friend request on Facebook. The use of an ethical framework is beneficial in aiding a nurse through an ethical dilemma. An ethical framework by Oberle and Raffin will be used for the case analysis, followed by a personal reflection. The Oberle and Raffin model includes questions to be considered during the analysis and provides a framework that may be applied to various ethical cases. The model consists ofRead MoreApplying Ethicak Framework in Practice1151 Words   |  5 PagesApplying Ethical Frameworks in Practice Grand Canyon University: Ethical Decision Making in Healthcare Lisa Firkus October 27, 2013 Applying Ethical Frameworks in Practice Care providers strive to provide care that is patient focused that maintains confidentiality and respect. This paper is about the maintenance of patient confidentiality and the trusting relationships that must be maintained between the patient and the healthcare providers. Ethical Implications of Breaching Confidentiality Read MorePersonal Vs. Professional Ethics Essay1549 Words   |  7 PagesIntroduction to Research Methods - Assignment 1 Personal v/s Professional Ethics The Oxford (Dictionary) defines ethic as a set of moral principles, forming a system. (Durant 1961) defines ethic as ‘the ideal conduct’. But none of them mention who creates these moral principles, who decides what is immoral, how does one state what ideal conduct is, and whether these definitions change from person to person, time to time and in different situations. (Jindal-Snape and Hannah 2014) describe three formsRead MoreIntroduction to Counselling Concepts1740 Words   |  7 PagesDRAFT Learner Statement 2: 7/2/06 - The British Association for Counselling and Psychotherapy is the largest and broadest counselling oriented associate body in Britain. It works with many other organisations on a guidance basis, and it’s Ethical Framework for counselling and psychotherapy is highly regarded and much referred to. The BACP is seeking to amend the law, and require all Counsellors to have a professional qualification before they can practice, in order to ease concerns over quackeryRead MoreEssay about Business Ethics and Kant1466 Words   |  6 Pagesmaintaining good business and public trust will be discussed. Following the ethics overview, an outline of deontology and Kant’s Categorical Imperative will be covered. Finally, the business practices and ethical issues with the Adelphia scandal will be analyzed using the deontological framework and Kant’s Categorical Imperative. Adelphia Scandal Adelphia Communications is a company that specializes in telecommunications including cable television and internet service, founded in 1952 by JohnRead MoreThe Conceptual Frameworks Of Ethics And Systems Leadership1375 Words   |  6 Pageswork for the good of the patient and is viewed as an ethical practice. Each day, nurses, and leaders are faced with ethical, moral, and legal challenges. One of the most powerful ways to promote ethics in healthcare is to role model ethical performance in the leadership levels. A leader s awareness of the ethical constructs of ethics, moral, and legal standards is necessary and can influence the ethical framework their staff uses to process ethical dilemmas (Cianci, Hannah, Roberts, Tsakunis, 2013)Read MoreEthical Framework Essay900 Words   |  4 PagesEthical Framework Fall 2007 Creating and defining my own ethical framework is essential in future success as a businessman, a leader, and a team player. As a business student, I have learned that it can be a very cut throat industry and in order to get ahead, at some point and ethical dilemma will undoubtedly be an obstacle I have to overcome. The way I handle these dilemmas can make or break my career; business ethics are a key part of earning and sustaining respect, trust, and a good rapport

Electronic Medical Records and Charting Essay examples

Electronic Medical Records and Charting Today’s healthcare is changing, and more hospitals are commencing to go paperless using computers for both medical records and charting. Computers are widely accepted, in personal and professional settings. It is an essential requirement for computer literacy. Numerous advances in technology during the past decade require that nurses not only be knowledgeable in nursing skills but also to become educated in computer technology. While electronic medical records (EMR’s) and charting can be an effective time management tool, some questions have been asked on how exactly this will impact the role and process of nursing, and the ultimate effects on patient safety and confidentiality. In order to†¦show more content†¦Some negative indications when using EMR’s could be: power outages and or computer glitches, potential privacy threats, and some believe that it may lead to depersonalized patient care. EMR’s and charting are becoming a bigger part of an ever changing aspect in the world of healthcare and should be used more in the Emergency Department at GLWACH and in all Emergency Departments across the nation. With further research looking into ways to fix any glitches and provide continued upgrade of systems, EMR’s have the potential to reduce health care costs, improve efficiency, and to enhance the quality of care and patient safety that is provided by the nurse and the rest of the medical staff in the Emergency Department. At this time GLWACH Emergency Department does use paper charting but the paper charts do get scanned and uploaded onto a computerized system to be made part of their permanent EMR. How can EMR’s improve the nursing process now and in the future? Having had the op-portunity to perform my clinicals in three different Emergency Departments in the past two years and being exposed to both the positive and negative to both paper and paperless medical records Training new nurses is vital for an accurate EMR. Bober, M., Boonstra, J.Show MoreRelatedElectronic Medical Records vs. Paper Charting1663 Words   |  7 PagesElectronic Medical records vs. Paper Medical Charts By: Diedre Fitzgerald Rasmussen College Summer 2012 English Composition; Professor Pauley Electronic Medical records vs. Paper Medical Charts It is no secret that the medical profession deals with some of population’s most valuable records; their health information. Not so long ago there was only one method of keeping medical records and this was utilizing paper charts. These charts, although still used in many practices today, have slowly beenRead MoreElectronic Charting Of The Emergency Room1089 Words   |  5 PagesElectronic Charting in the Emergency Room According to Fort Belvoir Community Hospital Emergency Department head COL Timothy Barron, M.D., the FBCH emergency department sees 52,000 patients per year. This makes it the busiest emergency room in the Defense Health Agency and the 5th busiest in the Department of Defense (T. Barron, personal communication, May 12, 2016). Despite this high flow of patients, the emergency department continues to use paper charting. This increases the risk of error in documentingRead MoreImplementation Of Benner s Theory For Informatics955 Words   |  4 Pagesexpert. Case Study University Medical Center has recently upgraded to an electronic medical record system. The goal of this system is to create more efficient, reliable, and accessible charting and medical records for doctors, nurses, and patients. When first discussed, the staff acted favorably towards it. However, with the system now in place, the staff is having a hard time adjusting. The staff nurses believe that the charting takes time away from patient care. Charting is taking longer than itRead MoreElectronic Medical Records And Electronic Health Records935 Words   |  4 Pages  Not only have these advancements helped make our lives easier, it has also helped us lived longer. For example, the use of the computer has evolved in health care. Medical Professionals use the computer for their daily operations. As a result of the use of the computer, the Electronic Medical Records (EMR) and Electronic Health Records (EHR) were created. In 2009, President Obama signed the American Recovery and Reinvestment Act, which included the HITECH (Health Information Technology for EconomicRead MoreEthical Implications Of Electronic Health Records967 Words   |  4 Pages Ethical Implications of Electronic Health Records Brian Davis Dr. Kemp defines an electronic medical record (EMR) as â€Å"the digital version of a paper chart that contains all of a patients medical history from one practice† (Kemp, 2014). He also differentiates between the use of the term electronic medical record (EMR) and electronic health record (EHR). An EHR is more â€Å"comprehensive† than an EMR. It allows for data sharing across multiple practices. The use of both EMRsRead MoreNursing Informatics Now and in the Future1626 Words   |  7 Pagescare worker can obtain information to deliver medical care to their patients much more efficiently than they could in the past. I want to discuss how the use of computers, electronic medical records and other electronic technologies has changed how we as health care professionals take care of our patients today and how we will be taking care of them in the future. ELECTRONIC MEDICAL RECORD: As little as 4 years ago I was still charting my assessments on my patients on paper chartsRead MoreOrganizational Assessment1097 Words   |  5 Pagescurrent charting system, in order to improve patient care. Perceived Needs for Improvement The organization requiring improvement in their technological department caters to patients with kidney disease. The organization provides life sustaining therapies from patients with acute kidney injury to those with end-stage renal disease. The one area in which the organization need to improve on is their charting system. The company currently utilizes three different electronic medical record system,Read MoreWith An Ever-Changing World, It Is Important To Predict1284 Words   |  6 Pagesis healthcare’s main concern. This paper analyzes the benefits and risks of paper vs. electronic vs. RFID charting. While paper charting in facilities are becoming obsolete, the alternatives still pose a risk for the provider and patient. Paper charting was once the first and only form of charting available in the healthcare system. With all of the advancements in technology, it is a wonder how paper charting is still around today. The answer is clear. It is fast, easy, simple, universal, littleRead MoreEssay National Ehr Mandate1248 Words   |  5 PagesNational EHR Mandate Heidi Babcock-Marvin Ohio University National EHR Mandate An electronic health record (EHR) defines as the permissible patient record created in hospitals that serve as the data source for all health records. It is an electronic version of a paper chart that includes the patient’s medical history, maintained by the provider over time, and may include all of the key administrative clinical data relevant to that persons care. Information that is readily available includesRead MoreElectronic Medical And Health Records Essay1681 Words   |  7 Pages Electronic Medical and Health Records: The Future of Healthcare Nursing Informatics Seanequa Morrison Dr. Gwen Morse November 22, 2016 Abstract Electronic medical records often used interchangeably with the term electronic health records are potential systems that are being used to not only transform the way healthcare is being delivered, but to promote the quality of care of patients while creating less medical errors. In recent years electronic health records (EHR) has evolved its concept

Computers in the World of Healthcare - 1259 Words

Before, when doctor’s offices and hospitals were using paper things would get lost or stolen. Over time offices and hospitals started transferring their paper documents on to a computer to narrow down too much paper work. Although there were some complications in regards to putting everything on the computer. Some paper work was either not put on the computer or lost in the confusion. Now days the only time when hospital uses paper is when the computers are down. In this paper, I will show you the world of healthcare all the way from history to future telesurgery. The uses of computers in healthcare include education, diagnostic testing, and medical research. The history of healthcare has changed in the last fifty years. In the 1950’s†¦show more content†¦Patient Monitoring is inputting vital signs of the patient all the way to the nurses’ computer in the nurses’ station. Also, a glucose check is automatically entered into the system by the glucose meter as it calculates the results. All of these sources of input are combined to form a complete current picture of the patient. When the picture is on the screen where it can be view is called an output device. An output device is something that is readable by people or a machine such as a printer. An x-ray and CT-scan both need to have an input and output device in order to read the image. Most applications for the healthcare system are for patient care such as accounting, information of the patient, scans, and the plan of care for them. Many people in the healthcare field use computer to record what they are doing. Doctors who have a program on a device called DRAGON that allows them to say what they are thinking, the information of the patients’ problems, and what the care of plan for that patient is going to be. The only thing that doctors have to do is talk, they do not have to write or put anything in the computer. When they talk it automatically puts what they say in the computer. Nurses use something that they call is COW which means a computer on wheels. They can take the computer with them to patient’s rooms as they are administering medication. This computer logs all medicals given as they are scanned by bar codes and the patient receiving theShow MoreRelatedUse of Computers in Education1199 Words   |  5 PagesUse of Computers in Education Computers have become an inseparable part of our lives to a great extent. Particularly in the field of education, their uses are manifold. Let us understand them further. Over the years, computers have changed the way the world works. They have proved to be an asset not only for the corporate sector, but also in other sectors such as medicine, architecture, communication, research, sports and education. Speaking of which, computers have taken over the field of educationRead MoreGaps And Issues And Challenges Of An Electronic Medical Records1071 Words   |  5 PagesIntroduction: In our society today, all healthcare institution must transition into having Electronic Medical Records (EMR). The institution that I currently work for is a hospital that has 591-bed and is a university-affiliated with New York University, which is one of the top University in New York (NYU Winthrop Hospital). We transitioned to a full EMR system last year, which was Soarian from Cerner (NYU Winthrop Hospital). We were introduced to Soarian Clinical and Soarian Financial. SoarianRead MoreThe New Classroom : Keeping Up With Healthcare Advancements918 Words   |  4 PagesKeeping Up With Healthcare Advancements Education has evolved by leaps and bounds since the first appearance of the modern pencil in 1795. Today’s classroom’s are utilizing laptops, cellphones, tablets and multiple social media platforms. It’s imperative that education continue to keep pace with technology due to the fact that technology has immersed it’s way into every facet of the medical world. The medical arena continues to make headway, wanting to improve every aspect of healthcare from patientRead MoreComputer Aided Mammograms And Trans Atlantic Data Transfer Privacy1726 Words   |  7 PagesPaper: Computer-Aided Mammograms and Trans-Atlantic Data Transfer Privacy Garrett Gutierrez CSE 485: Capstone I #80015 12:00 PM - 1:15 PM Introduction: As new technologies emerge, they cause new and surprising impacts on the world, which shape how people experience life. Yet, these advancements in computing and engineering may have some negative consequences. Thus, they become controversial issues. Two recent issues in the computing and engineering field are the effectiveness of computer-aided mammogramsRead MoreEvolution of Healthcare Informatics893 Words   |  4 Pagesï » ¿Jpz777 03/23/2013 Order # 2088926 Those working in the field of healthcare delivery have long recognized the importance of obtaining and recording accurate data during their course of their interaction with a patient, from the physical examination recorded by nursing staff to the administration of precise dosages by primary care physicians. For centuries, doctors the world over all shared a relatively reliable, yet admittedly simplistic method of storing and accessing this vital medical information:Read MoreThe Pros And Cons Of Artificial Intelligence1245 Words   |  5 Pagesentire life without using any type of technology. Cars, cellphones, and TV s are common things we use every day, and all contain computers. It is for this reason that computers and their software should become more intelligent to make our lives easier. Artificial Intelligence systems can and will benefit us all, however many have constantly warned that making computers too intelligent can be to our downfall. Artificial Intelligence has been around for years, but what is artificial intelligence? ItRead MoreTechnological Advancements Have Created New Opportunities For Individuals, Organizations And Societies1567 Words   |  7 PagesName: Moayed Shamy Instructor: Amonte Littlejohn Date: 12/04/2014 Overdependence on Computers Technological advancements have created new opportunities for individuals, organizations and societies. The contemporary society has taken the use of the computer hardware and software so seriously that organizations that have not embraced the platform are considered irrelevant in the highly busy and competitive contemporary business environment. Opportunities as well as challenges have been created toRead MoreHealthcare Communication As A Result Of Mobile Health Technology921 Words   |  4 PagesHow healthcare communication as a result of Mobile Health Technology Characterized as the â€Å"Digital Age,† modern technologies are flooding every aspect of our lives and completely transforming healthcare communication. Healthcare technologies have revolutionized information gathering, research, treatments and communication in healthcare. The invention of â€Å"Smart Phones, tablets, and computers† has changed health care communication because more than 60% of Americans own a smartphone and 42% of theseRead MoreNursing And Electronic Medical Records1719 Words   |  7 Pagesbroad range of computer technology for our use. This technology in the nursing field is called informatics. Informatics is defined as a combination of computer science, information science, and nursing science designed to assist in the management and processing of nursing data, information, and the knowledge to support the practice of nursing and the delivery of nursing care (Thede, 1). Nearly anywhere we go, and whatever career we choose we all need to have basi c computer skills. Computers are used inRead MoreMba Program At Mumbai University1250 Words   |  5 Pages STATEMENT OF PURPOSE Purusing MBA requires determination and strength of character. In recent years, the growth of the business world has become so huge that now there are no restricting borders and one can open up his/her business anywhere he/she wants to. With the increase in the demand for business executives, it has become a must to obtain a degree in management. As a native Asian, I am well aware of this growth, and thus want to gain as much knowledge as I can, so that I could achieve my dreams

Coach Carter Is The Best Version Of You - 851 Words

When a person is an athlete they have many highs and lows. The movie Coach Carter is a description of how to get through those highs and lows. Basketball is a sport that requires ninety percent thinking and ten percent of ability. The fact that an event that has happened in my life can be captured into a film and shown on a screen is amazing to me. The movie Coach Carter is very familiar to me; it’s a film that taps into the emotion of the player, it also shows a player how to become motivated, and it teaches the lesson of how to become the best version of you. The movie Coach Carter is one of the best performances of how to get a basketball team to abide by rules and create discipline. The movie is centered on a new coach who once was a player for the team back when he was in high school. The coach name is Coach Carter, and this is where the brilliant title for this movie came from. The team has been on a losing streak for the past couple of years and Mr. Carter has come to change this. The process of making this team successful is a hard task. During the process of creating the final teams there are players who come and go. The question that flourishes around this movie asked by the coach with no answer by the players is â€Å"What is your deepest fear?† Coach Carter made the team into winners, and then of course the player’s grades drop in their classes. The one thing that Mr. Carter focused on was education because he felt as if without it, the boys on his basketballShow MoreRelatedGatorade- Marketing Strategies5521 Words   |  23 Pages1967. Part of his marketing campaign for the new sports drink, was a product placement marketing strategy which branded Gatorade as the official sports drink of the NFL. During the 1967 NFL season, teams soon convinced Stokely to produce a powdered version made from concentrate so that they could mix it themselves in safer, non glass containers on the field. Stoked by profiles in leading regional an d national sports publications, Stokely’s own ads trumpeted the drink as â€Å"Gatorade, The Big Thirst QuencherRead MoreNeed for Speed6930 Words   |  28 PagesGeneration This was when Need for Speed started out as a franchise that revolved around driving exotics in scenic locations. The Need for Speed (1994) Main article: The Need for Speed The original Need for Speed was released for 3DO in 1994 with versions released for the PC (DOS) (1995), PlayStation and Saturn (1996) following shortly afterwards. The Need for Speed and its Special Edition were the only games in the series to support DOS. Subsequent releases for the PC run only within Windows. 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This was important for fleets of lar ge trucks. Malcolm Hand knew that Carter Paterson was one of several hundred large trucking companies that tended to keep careful recordsRead MoreHow Women Entrepreneurs Lead and Why They Manage That Way7218 Words   |  29 Pagesway, Gender in Management: An International Journal, Vol. 26 Iss: 3 pp. 220 - 233 http://dx.doi.org/10.1108/17542411111130981 Access to this document was granted through an Emerald subscription provided by CURTIN UNIVERSITY LIBRARY For Authors: If you would like to write for this, or any other Emerald publication, then please use our Emerald for Authors service. Information about how to choose which publication to write for and submission guidelines are available for all. Please visit www.emeraldinsightRead MoreJetblues Good Service Quality9603 Words   |  39 PagesJetBlue can expect continued, modest growth in passenger travel, especially in the U.S. (Dunn, 2012). 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Toward a Theory of Olympic Internationalism Free Essays

string(183) " to exacerbate and confuse the debate about values by crowning \(or afflicting\) the Movement with an exaggerated picture of its uniqueness as a vessel of reconciliation \(or harm\)\." Journal of Sport History, Vol. 22, No. 1 (Spring 1995) Toward a Theory of Olympic Internationalism John Hoberman University of Texas at Austin â€Å"Well, all right then, let’s talk about the Chairman of the World. We will write a custom essay sample on Toward a Theory of Olympic Internationalism or any similar topic only for you Order Now The world gets into a lot of trouble because it has no chairman. I would like to be Chairman of the World myself. † —E. B. White, Stuart Little (1945) â€Å"But when it comes to our age, we must have an automatic theocracy to rule the world. † —Sun Myung Moon (1973) Back in 1967, Dr. Wildor Hollmann, one of Germany’s most prominent sports physicians and longtime president of the International Federation for Sports Medicine (FIMS), was visiting the International Olympic Academy at Olympia on the day of its annual inauguration, with King Constantine himself in attendance. Naively assuming that the Academy was an open forum for thinking about the past, present, and future of the Olympic movement, Dr. Hollmann expressed the view that, in the not-too-distant future. he â€Å"Olympic idea† itself would inevitably fall victim to the logic of development inherent in the professionalization and commercialization of elite sport. The words were hardly out of his mouth before Dr. Hollmann was engulfed in a storm of indignation, during which an Italian member of the IOC declared that merely expressing such thoughts was in his view nothing less than a desecration of this holy site. 1 Olympic historiography has long been inseparable from the Movement’s stat us as a redemptive and inspirational internationalism. Like so many readings of its founder, Pierre de Coubertin (1863-1937), historical interpretations of the Olympic movement have generally taken the form of â€Å"either hagiographies or hagiolatries,† and not least because the founder himself â€Å"proclaimed Olympism beyond ideology. †2 Historical treatments of the Movement since the launching of that provocative claim have thus had no 1. W[ildor] Hollmann, â€Å"Risikofaktoren in der Entwicklung des Hochleistungssports. â€Å" in H. Rieckert, ed. Sportmedizin—Kursbestimmung [Deutscher Sportarztekongre? Kiel. l6. -19. Oktober 1986] (Berlin: SpringerVerlag, 1987): 18. 2. John J. MacAloon, This Great Symbol: Pierre de Coubertin and the Origins of the Modern Olympic Games (Chicago: University of Chicago Press, 1981): 2, 6. 1 Journal of Sport History, Vol. 22, No. 1 (Spring 1995) choice but to embrace or call into question the transcendent status of Olympic sport that is symbolized so powerfully by opening and closing ceremonies that tap into deep and unfulfilled wishes for a Golden Age of harmony and peace. Due at least in part to the impassioned and seemingly endless debate between the defenders and detractors of â€Å"Olympism,† with its pronounced emphasis on ethical values at the expense of historical factors, serious study of the Olympic movement has stagnated. Recent monographs have presented familiar events and issues without much in the way of new research or methodological innovation. 3 While the periodical literature of the past decade or so, including voluminous conference proceedings, has offered a wider range of perspectives, the conceptual landscape inhabited by the historian has not really changed in significant ways. This closed circulatory system of topics and problems has rigidified the important debate over values by limiting our understanding of the object of contention—the Olympic movement itself. The arguments between supporters and critics of the Movement that tend to dominate discussion naturally proceed from the assumption that both actually know what the Movement is or, at least, what it is worth to the international community. Yet the sheer complexity of the Olympic phenomenon suggests there is much more to know even without entering the domain of ethnographical research. I would propose that the production of this knowledge depends on reconceptualizing the Olympic movement in fundamental ways. This essay proposes a theory of Olympic internationalism based on a comparative method. Indeed, the fact that no comparative study of this kind has ever been published suggests that the iconic status of the Movement has had a profoundly limiting effect on Olympic historiography as a whole and thus on the debate regarding values. as well. For by exaggerating the uniqueness of the Movement, Olympic historians have conferred on it a degree of splendid (or, alternatively, discreditable) isolation that is contradicted by the historical evidence. An important consequence of this overly narrow 3. See. for example. Allen Guttmann. The Olympics: A History of the Modern Games (Urbana and Chicago, University of Illinois Press, 1992); and â€Å"The Olympic Games,† in Games Empires: Modern Sports and Cultural Imperialism (New York: Columbia University Press. 1994): 120-138. The former offers a good survey of Olympic history. The latter discusses the Olympic movement in the larger context of sport and cultural diffusion. See also Christopher Hill, Olympic Politics (Manchester and New York: Manchester University Press, 1992), which pays special attention to Olympic finance and the bidding process. For a highly personal and admiring treatment of the modern Olympic movement, see John Lucas, Future of the Olympic Games (Champaign, IL, Human Kinetics Books, 1992). 4. To this observation I must append an additional (and ironic) one. Even as I argue that the failure of Olympic historiography to embark upon comparative studies has isolated the movement. I must point out simultaneously that historical treatments of other international movements have isolated them in exactly the same way. In a word, nothing resembling a comprehensive theory of these international movements exists, perhaps in part because there are so many of them and they are so heterogeneous. For example, Samuel P. Huntington’s treatment of â€Å"Transnational Organizations in World Politics† (1973) includes none of the organizations discussed in the present essay and lists an â€Å"idealistic† organization like the Catholic church along with profit-oriented corporations and a pair of important Cold War institutions. His list reads as follows: Anaconda, Intelsat, Chase Manhattan, the Agency for International Development, the J. Walter Thompson advertising agency, Air France, the Strategic Air Command, Unilever, the Ford Foundation, the Catholic Church, the CIA, and the World Bank. The purpose of his essay is to analyze what he calls â€Å"a transnational organizational revolution in world politics. † See â€Å"Transnational Organizations in World Politics,† World Politics 25 (1973): 333-368. Toward a Theory of Olympic Internationalism interpretation has been to exacerbate and confuse the debate about values by crowning (or afflicting) the Movement with an exaggerated picture of its uniqueness as a vessel of reconciliation (or harm). You read "Toward a Theory of Olympic Internationalism" in category "Papers" The evidence presented below suggests that a comparison of the Olympic movement with contemporary and analogous international movements reveals a core repertory of behaviors and orientations that are common to them all. The comparative procedure presented here divides the history of these â€Å"idealistic internationalisms† into three periods that are roughly separated by the First and Second World Wars, respectively. The establishment of the Olympic movement in 1894 coincided with the sharply accelerated formation of a broad range of international organizations during the last decades of the nineteenth century. Between 1855 and 1914, their overall numbers increased from a mere handful to around 200, and the numbers have grown exponentially since the turn-of-the-century period. The comparative study of international organizations and the â€Å"movements† they launch remains underdeveloped to a striking degree, and this is so even in the case of important types of international activity. Thus, while Olympic historiography is rather well established, one historian has referred to the world of international science as a â€Å"largely unexplored domain. † On a broader scale, as anot her historian recently noted, â€Å"the construction of internationalism has merited scarcely a glance. †6 Accounting for such lacunae in the writing of history is in itself an interesting, and often difficult. istoriographical problem. It may be less difficult, however, in the case of movements that have created both core groups of loyal adherents and benevolent self-images that in some cases have exercised a virtually global reach for most of a century. The Olympic (1894), Scouting (1908), and Esperanto (1887) movements, for example, have all benefitted from benign myths of origin rooted in reverential attitudes toward the personal qualities of their respective founding fathers and the salvational doctrines they created. One result of such cults of personality is a â€Å"halo effect† that can confer on such movements a degree of immunity to critical examination. As one of the few serious historians of Scouting has pointed out: â€Å"Scouting has for so long been a familiar and well-loved part of the Western world that it appears always to have been with us, less a man-made creation than a natural, indigenous activity of our civilization. † The consequences of according such iconic status to culturally constructed institutions have been profound. In the case of Scouting, â€Å"it is startling that so few have seriously considered what it all meant. Such immunity from critical scrutiny has left Scouting almost entirely in the 5. Elizabeth Crawford, â€Å"The Universe of International Science, 1880-1939,† in Tore Frangsmyr, ed. Solomon’s House Revisited: The Organization and Institutionalization of Science (Canton, MA; Science History Publications, U. S. A. , 1990): 259-260. For evidence for the proliferation of international organizations during the twentieth century, see the Yearbook of International Organizations (Brussels: Union of International Associations, 1974). 6. Crawford, â€Å"The Universe of International Science,† 265; Leila J. Rupp, â€Å"Constructing Internationalism; The Case of Transnational Women’s organizations, 1888-1945,† American Historical Review (December 1994): 1571. 3 Journal of Sport History, Vol. 22, No. 1 (Spring 1995) hands of its own historians and publicists, a situation that is not helpful in trying to understand the origins and meaning of any movement. †7 These words are precisely descriptive of the Olympic movement, as well, the only difference being that Olympic historiography has developed (over the past 25 years) a degree of autonomy the history of Scouting has not. This autonomous branch of Olympic historiography is necessarily based on scholarly or investigative activity that produces interpretations of the Olympic movement that do not always coincide with those of the IOC and its adherents in the press and in academia. And it is here that analyzing the Movement will often be interpreted as â€Å"criticism. † Today, a generation after Wildor Hollmann’s heretical (and prophetic) remark about the future of Olympic sport, criticism of the International Olympic Committee is still capable of offending the dignity of its most powerful members. The landmark event in this regard was the publication in 1992 of The Lords of the Rings, an expose of the IOC’s inner circle by the investigative journalists Vyvian Simson and Andrew Jennings. Translated into 13 languages, the book became a global media event that traumatized the IOC leadership and, in particular, its President, Juan Antonio Samaranch, who stood accused of political opportunism and fascist allegiances both during the Franc period and after the Generalissimo’s death in 1975. The publication of Jaume Boix and Arcadio Espada’s book El deporte del poder. Vida y milagro de Juan Antonio Samaranch, containing essentially the same material on Samaranch’s political background, had gone virtually unnoticed by the world press only a year earlier. 8 The reaction from IOC headquarters to the atmosphere of scandal created by The Lords of the Rings deserves a study in itself. On 17 February 1994 the IOC and President Samaranch filed a criminal action in a Lausanne court against the authors but not against their more powerful major publishers (Simon Schuster, Bertelsman, Flammarion). The indictment (Investigation No. : CH. 32. 92) charged libel under article 174 and defamation under article 173 of the Swiss Penal Code. The tone of the document can be conveyed by quoting from its text: â€Å"The plaintiff, the International Olympic Committee (IOC) is an international nongovernmental organization, constituted as a nonlucrative association. It has the status of a person . . . . The work of the accused constitutes a lampoon directed against the plaintiffs, against the management of the IOC and its officials and against the behaviour of the former and of some of their co-contracting parties. To a large extent, the formulated criticisms constitute a blow to the honour of the IOC, its president and its 7. Michael Rosenthal. The Character Factory: Baden-Powell’s Boy Scouts and the Imperatives of Empire (New York: Pantheon Books, 1986): 1, 12. 8. Vyv Simson and Andrew Jennings, The Lords of the Rings: Power, Money and Drugs in the Modern Olympics (London: Simon Schuster, 1992); Jaime Boix and Arcadio Espada, El deporte de poder. Vida y milagro de Juan Antonio Samaranch [The Sport of Power. The Life and Miracle of Juan Antonio Samaranch] (= Hombres de hoy, Vol 30) (Madrid: Ediciones temas de hoy, 1991). For a very useful summary of this (still untranslated) volume see the review by Arnd Kruger in The International Journal of Sports History 10 (August 1993): 291-293. The author of this essay wishes to point out that he has not read El deporte del poder. 4 Toward a Theory of Olympic Internationalism members . . . The IOC is described as a secret and clandestine organization. similar to the mafia . . . The IOC, its president and its members are depicted as depraved and disgusting persons. † In December 1994. fter hearing testimony from President Samaranch himself, the court sentenced the authors in absentia to a five-day suspended jail sentence and the payment of $2,000 in court costs (which remains unpaid). The explicit reference in the indictment to violated â€Å"honour,† and the failure of article 173 to provide for any assessment of the truth or falsity of the alleged â€Å"defamation,† are a poignant reminder of the nineteenth-century origins of the IOC and th e role that aristocratic ideas about honor have played in shaping the value system and political behavior of the Olympic movement (see below). The furor created by this undocumented work of investigative journalism raised interesting questions for Olympic research. and the most important of these topics may well be the relationship between sports journalism and sports scholarship. 10 As Arnd Kruger points out in his review of El deporte del poder: â€Å"Good investigative reporting often beats much of what historians can offer in terms of graphic information and anecdotal material not so readily available in archival research. To this I would add that, in addition to useful anecdotal embellishments, these journalistic treatments of the political career of IOC president Samaranch offer the historian an opportunity to expand the framework for doing Olympic history in the direction of the comparative method described above. Indeed, Kruger himself points to the larger importance of suc h journalism: â€Å"This book ends many myths about the IOC and its current president† by excavating his political past and raising questions about how a person’s political formation may affect his conduct as 9. The carelessness (or dishonesty) with which the IOC drew up the indictment is evident in one instance in particular. Its list of alleged inaccuracies committed by the authors falsely accuses them of making an unflattering remark about the IOC that is clearly attributed in The Lords of the Rings (p. 211) to William Simon, former president of the United States Olympic Committee, former Secretary of the Treasury, and on account of his prominence, an unlikely target of IOC retaliation. The author of this essay wishes to point out that in November 1994 he sent a letter to the judge trying this care in Lausanne defending the authors’ right to publish The Lords of the Rings. 10. John J. MacAloon has written disapprovingly of what he regards as the degeneration of sports scholarship into a genre resembling sports journalism. He refers, for example, to â€Å"the uncomfortable interpretive alikeness—at least in the U. K. , where socialist analysis is one sort of cultural common sense—of much sports journalism and popular commentary on the one side, and sports sociology, stripped of its academic apparatus and pretenses, on the other. See â€Å"The Ethnographic Imperative in Comperative Olympic Research. † Sociology of Sport Journal, 9 (1992): 110. Or, â€Å"Treated like Journalists, sport scholars are tempted to act like them. † See â€Å"The Turn of Two Centuries: Sport and the Politics of Intercultural Relations,† in Fernand La ndry, Marc Landry, and Magdeleine Yerles, eds. Sport . . . The third millenium [Proceedings of the lnternational Symposium, Quebec City, Canada, May 21-25, 1990] (Sante-Foy: Les Presses de l’Universite Laval. 1991): 36. MacAloon‘s second point, regarding the likely consequences of the IOC’s unwillingness to share more information with Olympic researchers. is particularly insightful. He offers this remark in the context of arguing that sports leaders should not â€Å"deny themselves the professional expertise of scholars. † By contrast. the author of this essay regards the secretiveness of the IOC as essential to its operations as an â€Å"offshore† international body sheltering important individuals whose various operations would not stand up to press scrutiny. I would also point out that in neither of his essays does MacAloon criticize the many journalists who function as de facto publicists for the IOC. At a Colloquy on Olympic issues held in Lausanne in April 1994. IOC Director General Francois Carrard expressed the view that there are â€Å"some ten to fifteen† journalists in the world who actually understand Olympic issues. See â€Å"Proceedings of the Colloquy on the Themes of the Olympic Centennial Congress Held in the Olympic Museum, Ouchy, Lausanne on 8th, 9th and 10th April 1994† (unpublished document). Journal of Sport History, Vol. 22, No. 1 (Spring 1995) the leader of a powerful international organization that is to be counted among those â€Å"transnational forms, none of them transcendent, innocent, or neutral in political history,†11 which include the IOC. My point here is that the more we know about the formative history of an Olympic politician, the better the chances of finding comparable figures and patterns of behavior in other international organizations. In this sense, a book like The Lords of the Rings, while unsuitable as scholarly source material, has already served Olympic historiography by drawing attention to a triad of interrelated and neglected topics: first, the sheer autonomy and freedom from surveillance enjoyed by many high-ranking international functionaries inside and outside the IOC; second, how the upper echelons of international organizations provide political and financial opportunity and sanctuary to significant numbers of people who have compromised themselves in various ways back in their national communities; and third, the long history of extreme right-wing personalities and attitudes within the IOC. As Simson and Jennings put it: â€Å"The Samaranch who went to the IOC in 1966 would have found himself at ease among the many other members from authoritarian or undemocratic backgrounds. †12 One purpose of this essay is to account for this continuity between the IOC of the fascist period in Europe and the comparable elites to be found at the top of international sports federations today. This ideological continuity is not simply a result of the procedures by which the IOC or any of the other federations choose their members. On the contrary, the selfperpetuating process which renews the membership of the IOC has been made even more efficient by the way it and comparable organizations have served as â€Å"offshore† enterprise zones for right-wing personalities and various amoral opportunists since the political collapse of fascism in 1945. 1. The Early Internationalist Period Any study of the â€Å"idealistic† international movements of the fin de siecle period must acknowledge their diverse characteristics as well as demonstrate the values and behaviors that make them cohere as a distinct category of thematically interrelated organizations that sometimes attracted overlapping clienteles. Their homogeneity and heterogeneity as a class of social phenomena become yet clearer if we expand the scope of our survey beyond the four primary movements to be examined here, namely, the Red Cross (1863), the Esperanto movement (1887), the Olympic movement (1894). and the Scouting movement (1908). It is of fundamental importance, for example, that all of these movements were ideologically distinct from Marxist internationalism. Indeed, this is one way to account for the fact that all of them eventually accommodated the Nazis in various ways. The First International (or International Working Men’s Association) was founded by Marx in 1864, outlawed in France and Germany, and effectively dissolved in 1872. Despite its 11. MacAloon, â€Å"The Ethnographic Imperative in Comperative Olympic Research,† 126. 12. Simson and Jennings, The Lords of the Rings, 111. 6 Toward a Theory of Olympic Internationalism political insignificance, as James Joll notes, â€Å"it had awakened all Europe to the possibilities of international working class action . . . . And so, on the eve of its extinction, the International was endowed with a legendary power it had lacked in its lifetime, and acquired a largely spurious tradition of heroic international revolutionary action. † The Second International (1889-l914), which collapsed when the European proletariat deserted international solidarity for national chauvinism and military service at the outbreak of the Great War, actually employed some of the ideas and rhetorical devices characteristic of the â€Å"bourgeois† internationalisms of the epoch. That these superficial resemblances were outweighed by the ideological barrier is evident in the fact that its ideological descendants would eventually stage an impressive series of Workers Olympiads (1921-1937) that the Socialist Workers Sports International claimed were more genuinely international than the â€Å"bourgeois† Olympic Games. The internationalism of the late nineteenth century could also take the form of an artistic cosmopolitanism. Like the Olympic movement, Wagnerism was an international movement originating in an established cultural medium (music) that developed both a distinctive ideology, composed of a cultural critique and a program for cultural renewal, and an international clientele. The golden age of Wagnerian internationalism commenced in 1872, when the master moved to Bayreuth, and ended with his death in 1883. Olympism and Wagnerism both served up ersatz religious experiences to people disillusioned with European â€Å"progress† and positivis t thinking. There was a pervasive need for an emotional piety that was less vulnerable than orthodox religious observance to the dessicating effects of change, scientific progress. and higher biblical criticism. †13 During the last decades of the nineteenth century there appeared a variety of internationalisms that could satisfy such needs. and the Wagner cult that spread west to America and east to Russia was one of them. To be sure, Wagnerism was German in a way the Olympic movement could not be, although the 1936 Berlin Olympiad, judged as an aesthetic production, was a great triumph of the Olympic â€Å"Germanizers† that put its permanent mark on Olympic ritual. 4 Yet even the Germanness of Wagnerism took the form of a universalistic doctrine that anticipated the Olympic movement and its redemptive mission across national boundaries. For in identifying the Germans as the most â€Å"universal† of peoples, Wagner was proclaiming Germany’s mission to the world. This sort of ethnocentric cosmopolitanism, as we shall see in the next section of this essay, eventually served as a transitional Weltanschauung to expedite the process by which Germany overcame the xenophobic inhibitions deriving from its own cultural insecurities and appropriated Olympic internationalism on German terms. 13. David C. Large and William Weber, â€Å"Introduction†; David C. Large, â€Å"Wagner’s Bayreuth Disciples,† in David C. Large and William Weber, eds. Wagnerism in European Culture and Politics (Ithaca and London: Cornell University Press, 1984): 18. 14. Thomas Alkemeyer, â€Å"Gewalt und Opfer im Ritual der Olympischen Spiele 1936,† in Gunter Gebauer, ed. Korper und Einbildungskraft: Inszenierungen des Helden im Sport (Berlin: Dietrich Reimer Verlag, 1988): 44-79. 7 Journal of Sport History, Vol. 22, No. 1 (Spring 1995) Wagner’s foreign admirers were thus able to enjoy his musical productions as supranational experiences. In addition, as Gerald D. Turbow has pointed out, the Wagner devotee was participating in the general internationalist ferment of the epoch whether he knew it or not. Thus one French enthusiast, â€Å"writing shortly after the Geneva Treaty on War [1864], the establishment of the Red Cross [1863], and the organization of the First International [1864], found the principle of world unity and peace in Wagner’s operas. In characteristic utopian terms he maintained that just as Wagner had eliminated the barriers that existed between set numbers in the formal operas and just as the old boundaries between cities were vanishing, so now would they disappear between countries as well. †15 It is even more interesting to learn that Coubertin experienced his own Wagnerian epiphany. In his Olympic Memoirs (193l), Coubertin reports that a visit to Bayreuth, and the â€Å"passionate strains† of Wagner’s music, assisted him in seeing the â€Å"Olympic horizons† before his mind’s eye. 6 The existence of a Wagnerian internationalism demonstrates that certain internationalist projects of this period were not negations of nat ionalism but rather cultural projections of nationalist impulses employing cosmopolitan vocabularies rooted in ethnocentric ideas of national grandeur. 17 A variety of internationalist initiatives, including the Olympic movement, both included and disguised nationalist and even cultic themes which could be presented as cosmopolitan projects within the European context. Rooted in racialistic European mythologies, such idealistic cosmopolitanisms did not anticipate, to take only one example, the multiracial agenda of the modern Olympic movement. Olympism, Wagnerism, and the Salzburg [music] Festival (1920-) are three such cosmopolitanisms rooted in cultic reappropriations of the European past. Their respective ideological sources are the myth of ancient Hellas, Germanic mythology, and a myth of Austria’s baroque cultural heritage, and there is evidence which suggests they once constituted a single festival metagenre in the minds of some observers. Thus, in 1918, an Austrian cultural critic wrote that the Salzburg Festival was the first â€Å"total aesthetic realization (Durchbildung) of the festival character† since the revival of the 15. Gerald D. Turbow, â€Å"Art and Politics: Wagnerism in France,† in Wagnerism in European Culture and Politics, 153. 16. Pierre de Coubertin, Memoires olympiques (Lausanne: Bureau international de pedagogie sportive, 1931): 64. It is also interesting to note that Jules Ferry, an early prime minister of the French Third Republic, was both a supporter of Coubertin and an admirer of Wagner. See Turbow, â€Å"AR and Politics: Wagnerism in France,† 143, 146. 17. Cosmopolitanism and internationalism have been (properly) defined as different ideals. Marcel Mauss, writing in 1919-1920, regarded these terms as opposed ideas. â€Å"Internationalism worthy of the name is the opposite of cosmopolitanism. It does not deny the nation, it situates it. Internation is the opposite of a-nation. Thus it is also the opposite of nationalism, which isolates the nation. † Mauss defines cosmopolitanism as a doctrine which tends toward â€Å"the destruction of nations, to the creation of a moral order (morale) in which they would no longer be the sovereign authorities, creators of the law, nor the supreme ends worthy of future sacrifices to a superior cause, named humanity itself. † Mauss derides this ideal as â€Å"an etheral theory of the monadic human being who is everywhere identical. † See Marcel Mauss, â€Å"Nation, national, internationalisme,† in Oeuvres, 3 (Paris: Editions de minuit, 1969). 8 Toward a Theory of Olympic Internationalism Olympic Games. 8 What is more, historians of both Wagnerism and the Salzburg Festival have shown how these cultural productions—in effect, nationalistic cults—were successfully marketed to international audiences. â€Å"The tact and success of the pan-European Salzburg propaganda came from the fact that this nationalist program could be expressed as a cosmopolitan ideal that in turn would seem like pure internationalism to the English and the French. †19 The Olympic movement, too, has derived much of its international prestige from precisely this sort of transformation, whereby an essentially national ambition has been perceived as Enlightenment cosmopolitanism. In all three case—Olympism, Wagnerism, and Salzburg—the â€Å"European idea† proved to be a politically viable packaging for nationalistic content. As we will see in the next section, both German â€Å"universalism† and the â€Å"European idea† served to reconcile the ideological needs of European rightwingers to the requirements of Olympic internationalism. 20 Certain international movements of this period can be seen as gendered. embodying a kind of male or a female solidarity and an ideology to express this gendered orientation. The Olympic and Scouting movements began as internationalisms that promulgated related conceptions of the ideal male. an orientation that had political consequences during the fascist period (see below). Even though both eventually absorbed female participants, gender integration occurred in a male-dominated context that ascribed limited capacities to female participants. A countervailing example of gender-segregated internationalism was the organizing of women on a transnational basis, which began in 1888 with the founding of the International Council of Women in Washington. D. C. â€Å"Both by assuming fundamental gender differences and by advocating separatist organizing, women in transnational organizations drew boundaries that separated men from women. †21 This autonomous policy of segregation makes female internationalism especially interesting to the comparativist as a â€Å"control group† internationalism vis-a-vis other groups precisely because its leaders claimed to be building upon a distinct and more pacific type of human nature than that possessed by their male counterparts. In retrospect, however, the comparison between â€Å"male† and â€Å"female† international organizations is interesting precisely because it reveals more similarities than differences, confirming my operating thesis that there is a core repertory of behaviors and attitudes that characterize the important groups that appear during this extraordinary period of internationalist ferment. This repertory includes a rhetoric of universal membership, a 18. Michael P. Steinberg, The Meaning of the Salzburg Festival: Austria as Theater and Ideology, 18901938 (Ithaca and London: Cornell University Press, 1990): 60. 19. Large, â€Å"Wagner’s Bayreuth Disciples,95: Steinberg, The Meaning of the Salzburg Festival, 69. The festival program revealed on every level a convergence of explicitly cosmopolitan and pan-European ideals with a Bavarian-Austrian—that is, a baroque-nationalism. † See Steinberg, 23. 20. I have adapted this paragraph from John M. Hoberman, â₠¬Å"Olympic Universalism and the Apartheid Issue. † in Fernand Landry, Marc Landry, and Magdeleine Yerles eds. Sport. . . The third millenium [Proceedings of the International Symposium, Quebec City, Canada, May 21-25, 1990] (Sainte-Foy: Les Presses de l’Universite Laval, 1991): 531. 21. Rupp, â€Å"Constructing Internationalism,† 1582. 9 Journal of Sport History, Vol. 22, No. 1 (Spring 1995) Eurocentric orientation that limits universal participation, an insistence on political neutrality, the empowering role of wealth, social prominence and aristocratic affiliations. professed interest in peacemaking or pacifism, a complex and problematic relationship between national and international loyalties, the emergence of a (marginalized) â€Å"citizen-of-the-world†-style radical supranationalism, and the use of visual symbols such as flags and anthems. One might also say that all of these movements offered to their members a philosophy of creative international a ction amounting to a way of life for those possessing the necessary dedication and financial independence to pursue it. The Feminist International appears to have differed from its male counterparts in not producing a conspicuous hagiographical tradition honoring its â€Å"founding mothers. More importantly, an exclusively female membership and its doctrine of biogendered pacifism (â€Å"All wars are men’s wars†) precluded their adopting (as the Olympic and Scouting movements did) the ideology of chivalry as the basis for establishing an idealized transnational identity. As we will see in the next section, the establishment of a transnational male identity based upon â€Å"chivalric† ideals played an important role in shaping relations between the â€Å"male† internationalisms and Nazi Germany. In addition to sharing a set of core behaviors and attitudes, the idealistic internationalisms were bound together by personal ties between groups and by individu als with ties to more than one group. For example, Dietrich Quanz has demonstrated Coubertin’s close ties to the European peace movement of the fin de siecle and the prewar Nobel Peace Prize Laureates (1901-1913): â€Å"Coubertin must have noticed this model for international private oganizations. He had had contact with almost half of the Nobel Peace Prize winners, some of whom were his friends. He listed five of them as honorary members of the Founding Congress of the IOC in 1894. † 22 Among Coubertin’s Nobel Peace Prize contacts was the Austrian pacifist Alfred Hermann Fried, who published an Esperanto textbook for German-speakers in 1903. 23 Coubertin was also co-founder in 1910 (with the Nobel Prizewinning [1908] physicist Gabriel Lippmann) of the Ligue d’Education National. he forerunner of the French Boy Scouts,24 while Lord BadenPowell, the founder of the Scouting movement, promoted the British ideology of sportsmanship absorbed by Coubertin. 25 The pacifistically inclined German educa tor Friedrich Wilhelm Forster (1869-1966) called Baden22. Dietrich R. Quanz. â€Å"Formatting Power of the IOC: Founding the Birth of a New Peace Movement. † Citius. Altius. Fortius, 3 (Winter 1995): 12. See also Dietrich R. Quanz, â€Å"Die Grundung des IOC im Horizont von burgerlichem Pazifismus und Internationalismus,† in Gunter Gebauer, ed. Die Aktualitat der Sportphilosophie (St. Augustin: Academia Verlag, 1993), 191-216: â€Å"Civic Pacifism and Sports-Based Internationalism: Framework for the Founding of the International Olympic Committee,† Olympika. The International Journal of Olympic Studies, 2 (1993): 1-23. 23. Ulrich Lins, Die gefahrliche Sprache: Die Verfolgung der Esperantisten unter Hitler und Stalin (Gerlingen: Bleicher Verlag, 1988): 41. 24. Arnd Kruger, â€Å"Neo-Olypismus zwischen Nationalismus und internationalismus,† in Horst Ueberhorst, ed. Gescichte der Leibesubung, 3/1 (Berlin: Bartels und Wernitz, 1980): 524. 25. Rosenthal, The Character Factory, 10, 31. 10 Toward a Theory of Olympic Internationalism Powell’s Scouting for Boys (1908) â€Å"the best pedagogical book to have appeared in decades. †26 Like Coubertin, the German chemist Wilhelm Ostwald (Nobel Prize 1909) had multiple ties to internationalist projects. At first a supporter of Esperanto, Ostwald changed his allegiance to Esperanto’s chief competitor, the artificial language Ido, in 1908. He also worked toward founding an international chemical institute. 27 In a more eccentric vein. Ostwald served as President of the International Committee of Monism, a philosophy based on the universal authority of science that aimed at propagating â€Å"a rational ethics. † In Monism as the Goal of Civilization (1913), Ostwald held out the possibility of â€Å"a completely neutral and likewise easily acquired auxiliary language† as â€Å"an indescribable blessing† for mankind. pointing to â€Å"the rapidly increasing international arrangements and relations† and the â€Å"irresistible flow toward the international organization of human affairs. 28 All three of the early international women’s organizations weighed the possibility of adopting Esperanto as a means of facilitating communication. 29 The Intern ational Committee of the Red Cross (ICRC) sent a delegation to the Esperanto Congress held in Dresden in 1907. 30 The first chairman of the London Esperanto Club, Felix Moscheles, was President of the International Arbitration and Peace Association and a major figure in the pacifist movement. 31 These and other interrelationships confirm the thesis that such groups belong to a genre of international organizations, both unified and variegated, that deserves to be studied in a comparative manner. As the great early promoter of international sport, â€Å"the Esperanto of the aces† (Jean Giraudoux), Coubertin occupies a central position within this configuration of internationally minded idealists. All of the idealistic internationalisms of this period appealed to deep feelings among Europeans that were rooted in anxieties about war and peace. As inhabitants of a political universe that has effectively banished the memory of socialist internationalism prior to the Third (Communis t) International, we would do well to recall its stature as the preeminent antiwar movement of its period (1889-1914). â€Å"For at least fifty years,† as James Joll has noted, â€Å"international Socialism was one of the great intellectual forces in Europe . . . while no statesman or political thinker could avoid taking it into account. The urgency of the feelings shared by Socialist and non-Socialist internationalists alike was evident at the emergency congress of the Socialist International, held in Basle in November 1913, as fear of war spread throughout 26. Karl Seidelmann, Die Pfadfinder in der deutschen Jugendgeschichte (Hannover: Hermann Schroedel Velag, 1977): 28-29. 27. Lins, Die gefahrliche Sprache, 42; Crawford, â€Å"The Universe of International Science,† 264, it is worth noting that Crawford calls Ostwald â€Å"the most ubiquitous of scientists† (264). 28. Wilhelm Ostwald, Monism as the Goal of Civilization (Hamburg: The International Committee o f Monism, 1913): 10, 6, 25. 29. Rupp, â€Å"Constructing Internationalism,† 1578. 30. Peter G. Forster, The Esperanto Movement (The Hague: Mouton Publishers, 1982): 170. 31. Lins, Die gefahrliche Sprache, 28. 11 Journal of Sport History, Vol. 22, No. 1 (Spring 1995) Europe. Sobered into a state of somber meditation that permitted the relaxation of ideological discipline, the delegates heard the great French leader Jean Jaures sound a religious note, while the next day the veteran Swiss Socialist Greulich, â€Å"when finally closing the proceedings, not only referred to Bach’s B Minor Mass but even, though with an apologetic ‘Don’t be alarmed’, quoted from the Roman Catholic liturgy to express the socialist hope: ‘Exspecto resurrectionem mortuorum et vitam venturam saeculis’. †32 The ideological divisions that separated Socialists from non-Socialists (and, ater, Socialists from Communists) have had a profound impact on the entire phenomenon of European internationalism during this century. The sports and Esperanto movements eventually split along ideological lines into socialist and â€Å"bourgeois† factions, while Baden-Powell’s bo urgeois-nationalist Boy Scout organization was subjected to harsh criticism just after the Great War by his onetime successor-apparent, John Hargrave, a militant proponent of â€Å"World Friendship† who could not stomach the imperialist component of Baden-Powell’s doctrine. That Baden-Powell rejected the charge as â€Å"Bolshevism† only confirms the importance of the division between the anti-imperialist, non-establishmentarian internationalisms and their bourgeois-nationalist counterparts. 3 In the case of the Esperantists, however, this ideological divide was mostly illusory, due to the fact that the artificial language movement appealed to the marginal and the underprivileged from its very beginnings in eastern Poland and Russia in the late 1880s and 1890s. This affinity between the fraternal idealism of the Esperantists and the ethical program of the revolutionary Left was recognized by the early psychoanalytical writer J. C. Flugel, who was himself an Esper antist. â€Å"The Esperanto movement,† he wrote in 1925, â€Å"with its quasi-religious enthusiasm and its attempt to break down the barriers between nations and races, inevitably challenges comparison with certain other movements of a universalizing tendency. It has, of course, certain features in common with Socialism and Communism. These also are international and pacifist in character, and aim at fostering a spirit of comradeship among fellow-members; but they differ from the Esperanto movement in two important respects: (a) In the essential economic basis of their programme; (b) In that the revolutionary and insurgent tendencies— based ultimately on displacements of father-hatred—are very much more prominent. In the Esperanto movement these latter tendencies are implicit rather than explicit . . . .†34 This crucial distinction between explicit and implicit â€Å"insurgent tendencies† was the most important difference between the revolutionary and his typological opposite, the linguistic humanitarian whose progressive idealism was channeled into more symbolic forms of re32. James Joll, The Second lnternational 1889-1914 (London and Boston: Routledge Kegan Paul, 1974): 1, 158, 159. 33. Rosenthal, The Character Factory, 245-247. 34. J. C. Flugel, â€Å"Some Unconscious Factors in the International Language Movement With Special Reference to Esperanto,† International Journal of Psycho-Analysis, 6 (1925): 12 Toward a Theory of Olympic Internationalism sistance to political repression and national chauvinism. Despite its nonrevolutionary status, Flugel saw his analysis of the artificial language movement as a contribution to â€Å"the psychology of progressive social movements† in a wider sense. A study of the â€Å"unconscious mental mechanisms with which psycho-analysis has made us familiar† could thus illuminate â€Å"the wider psychological problems presented by language and by constructive social movements in general. Such comments make it clear that Flugel was canny enough to understand that â€Å"rational† policies might well derive in part from nonrational impulses. Thus he did not hesitate to identify the altruism and dynamism of his fellow Esperantrists with sexual wishes and potent ially grandiose ideas about undoing the havoc wrought in the Biblical story of the Tower of Babel. 35 Still, it is apparent that Flugel saw internationalism as a single genre of activity that was inherently â€Å"progressive† despite its psychoanalytic complications, and it is likely that he associated its â€Å"constructive† potential with the Enlightenment tradition of rational problemsolving and cosmopolitan understanding. The problem with this portrait of the Esperantists is that it is expurgated (or simply uninformed) and thus historically inaccurate in important respects. By 1925. there was plenty of evidence to suggest that the Esperanto movement was not uniformly â€Å"progressive † in a political sense; it would appear, however, that Flugel overlooked these facts on account of his deep respect both for the founding father of the movement and for many of his fellow enthusiasts. The founder of Esperanto, Ludwig Lazar Zamenhof (18591917), was a Jew born in Bialystok, Poland, who was convinced that only an artificial and universally comprehensible language could heal the ethnic strife that plagued this area. (At the age of 10, Zamenhof wrote a five-act tragedy, set in Bialystok, based on the Tower of Babel story. In the years that followed his publication of the first Esperanto textbook in 1887, adherents of the movement deemphasized Zamenhof’s Jewish origins in order to minimize anti-S emitic resistance to their proselytizing efforts. More surprising in retrospect is the fact that the Dreyfus Affair (1895) the great political litmus test of fin-de-siecle French political life, polarized the French Esperantists, demonstrating that linguistic internationalism alone did not guarantee a â€Å"progressive† political orientation. The â€Å"Declaration on the Essence of Esperanto† that was adopted at the first Congress of Esperantists held at Boulogne-surmer in 1905 was a clear declaration of political neutrality that did not even mention world peace. Indeed, the Universal Esperanto Association (UEA) was not established until 1908, by which time the influence of Zamenhof’s quasi-religious doctrine of universal brotherhood was already in decline. 36 To some extent this breach between the founders’ ideals and a more practical orientation emphasizing commerce and science reflected a difference in out35. Flugel, â€Å"Some Unconscious Factors,† 171-172, 208, 187, 190. 36. Lins, Die gefahrliche Sprache, 29, 31, 26. 13 Journal of Sport History, Vol. 22, No. 1 (Spring 1995) look between Western Europe (especially France) and Eastern Europe and Russia. where political repression and a high proportion of Jewish Esperantists had preserved the early idealism. The larger lesson, however, is that even early on linguistic internationalism showed signs of the defensive political neutralism and resulting fissiparous tendencies that compromised its independence and opened windows of opportunity for political activists on the Left and the Right during the 1920s and 1930s. That even as well-informed an observer as Flugel did not understand the ideological instability of the Esperantists points to some of our own acquired habits of thought regarding the effectiveness of internationalist ideals and the transnational groups that attempt to implement them. The traditional (though now eroding) assumption that idealistic internationalisms can transform the modern world has been profoundly shaped by our image of the Enlightenment cosmopolitanism that dates from the late eighteenth century. The League of Nations, the United Nations, the vast empires of modern science and sport, nd countless international arrangements of equal or lesser scope all trace th eir ancestry (or an important part of it) to a period that has taken on the aura of a Golden Age. It has been more than two hundred years since the American Philosophical Society proclaimed (in 1778) that â€Å"Nations truly civilized (however unhappily at variance on other accounts) will never wage war with the Arts and Sciences and the common Interests of Humanity,†37 but the charm (and the pathos) of such a declaration, and its promise of a Sacred Truce between the nations, affect us still. By the end of the nineteenth century, this ideal was most clearly expressed in what Elisabeth Crawford has called the â€Å"universe of international science. † â€Å"Because science was universal and constituted a common language. she notes, â€Å"international scientific organizations, it was felt, could become models for international associations generally and even help usher in world government. †38 This idealized image of cosmopolitan networking in the service of pr ogress has been the standard against which internationalist projects have been judged for the last century. What is more, this fantasy of a transnational scientific enterprise untainted by national self-interests has created unrealistic expectations in relation to all of the idealistic internationalisms, prominently including the Olympic movement. If we are interested in establishing the potential of the idealistic internationalisms, then the value of the comparative method lies in establishing realistic parameters of action (and even imagination) over the long term. If we ask, for example, whether the Olympic movement has done what it should have been able to do in fulfillment of its professed aims, what we are really asking is whether it has performed on a par with analogous organizations in comparable historical conditions. While no two of these organizations have had identical resources at their disposal, even the (necessarily 37. Thomas J. Schlereth, The Cosmopolitan Ideal in Enlightenment Thought (South Bend: The Notre Dame University Press, 1977): 45. 38. Crawford, â€Å"The Universe of International Science,† 254. 14 Toward a Theory of Olympic Internationalism abbreviated) survey presented in this essay can, I believe, identify that â€Å"core repertory of attitudes and behaviors† that makes comparison worthwhile. Perhaps the most general of these factors is the contest between nationalist and internationalist motives and loyalties (in differing proportions) within the minds of those who led or followed. If Coubertin came to â€Å"the conviction that patriotism and internationalism were not only not incompatible, but required one another,† then this was one (entirely reasonable) response to a problem that could be solved in various ways. 39 In the case of Baden-Powell’s movement, â€Å"the celebration of national greatness,† as Michael Rosenthal points out, â€Å"becomes a problem for the Scouts . . . when the insistence on British national superiority clashes with the equality of all people that is so much a part of Scouting, and more particularly within the movement’s worldwide ambitions that rapidly developed. 40 This potential for intrapsychic conflict affected the Esperantists, as well, even if Zamenhof had personally resolved the internal conflict between the competing identities of â€Å"human being† and â€Å"patriot† in favor of the former. Disagreements among the Esperantists regarding whether they should organize on a national or supranational basis were another manifestation of this basic conflict between national and internationalist affiliations. How the individual member resolved this conflict was a question of political temperament, although it is also true that the range of choices depended to some extent on the movement to which one belonged. The Esperanto movement, for example, tolerated radical, â€Å"citizen-of-the-world†-style supranationalism in a way that the Scouting and Olympic movements did not. A comparative look at their founders can help us understand why. The movements of Lord Robert Baden-Powell (1857-1941) and Pierre de Coubertin are strikingly similar in several respects. Both movements proclaimed early on their universal, apolitical, nonracial and nonmilitary nature: while neither founder was a pacifist—Baden-Powell was an acclaimed professional soldier—both claimed to serve the cause of peace: while they claimed to be classless movements, both were also intended as strategies to deal with domestic social instability and class conflict. Both founders were acclaimed as â€Å"educators† and mobilizers of youth. Both shared the racialistic ideas of their time, although Baden-Powell made openly racist statements in a way that Coubertin did not. 41 Both put a high priority on appearing politically neutral, and both understood the importance of creating a rhetoric and a public image that â€Å"transcended† politics. When recruiting the Comite Jules Simon, as John J. MacAloon points out, â€Å"Coubertin reproduced the now familiar claim that ‘we have recruited adherents of all parties, our work is in effect sheltered from all political quarrels. ’ In fact, the ‘shelter,’ such as it was, owed to drawing all of the members from the ‘parties of order’ and 39. MacAloon, This Great Symbol, 112. 40. Rosenthal, The Character Factory, 176. 41. Rosenthal, The Character Factory, 40-43, 181, 254-267. On Coubertin’s racial thinking see Hoberman, â€Å"Olympic Universalism and the Apartheid Issue,† 524-525. 15 Journal of Sport History, Vol. 22, No. 1 (Spring 1995) skewing their ‘neutrality’ toward the right. †42 Baden-Powell pursued the same strategy, and the Esperantists too did their best to establish a nonpartisan profile. 43 (Among the late-nineteenth-century movements, the Red Cross had pioneered the policy of absolute neutrality in the 1860s. ) It is clear, then, that the claim (or pretense) to political neutrality, a policy that would both empower and constrain these movements throughout the twentieth century, was regarded by most non-Socialist internationalists as an absolute requirement for effective action. What distinguished the Scouting and Olympic movements in quite another sense from the Esperantists and the Red Cross was their pursuit of aristocratic affiliations or royal patronage, itself an important ideological signature of movements that were bent on achieving a reconciliation of the social classes. By contrast, Zamenhof saw Esperanto as an instrument of the oppressed, and Flugel later offered an interesting explanation as to why â€Å"the international language movement has enjoyed comparatively little support from the more aristocratic and educated classes. †44 The mononational Red Cross, which until 1923 recruited its membership exclusively from the cream of the Genevan professional bourgeoisie, did not need aristocratic sponsorship. 45 Coubertin, on the other hand, had to create his own establishment. In 1908, European nobility made up 68 percent of the membership of the IOC, a figure which declined to 41 percent by 1924. 46 In Britain, Baden-Powell—a socially prominent hero of the Boer War-had access to a uniquely celebrated caste of royals. â€Å"The Royal family and the English government have shown a great interest in scouting since its inception,† one observer wrote in 1948. â€Å"The King became the Patron of the British Boy Scouts, the Prince of Wales became Chief Scout for Wales and Princess Mary the president of the Girl Guides. † At the first Jamboree held in London in 1920, Prince Gustav Adolph of Sweden was made honorary president of the International Boy 42. MacAloon, This Great Symbol, 105. 43. The official Soviet view of Scouting in the West challenged its claim to political neutrality: â€Å"Scouting seeks to train the younger generation in a spirit of loyalty to the ideals of bourgeois society. Although professing to be unaffiliated with any political party, scout organizations do in fact have clearly expressed political, militaristic, and religious tendencies they strive to keep the younger generation from participating in the struggle for revolutionary and democratic change and to isolate young people from the influence of materialism and communism. Scouting advocates the idea of class peace in a capitalist state. . . The Komsomol [youth organization] consistently struggled against the scout movement. The second, third, and fourth Komsomol congresses (1918-20) adopted resolutions calling for the dissolution of scout groups and worked out a program for the creation of a new, communist type of children’s organization. † Here, as in other areas of popular culture like sport and the arts, Communists faced the challenge of repackaging attractive â€Å"bourgeois† activities in conformity with Marxist-Leninist ideological requirements. See the Great Soviet Encyclopedia, Vol. 23 (New York: Macmillan, 1979): 253. 44. Flugel, â€Å"Some Unconcious Factors,† 200; see also 175, 176, 201. 5. Jean-Claude Favel, Warum schwieg das Rote Kreuz? Eine internationale Organisation und das Dritte Reich (Munich: Deutscher Taschenbuch Verlag, 1994): 25-26. 46. M. Blodorn and W. Nigmann, â€Å"Zur Ehre underes Vaterlandes und zum Ruhme des Sports,† in M. Blodorn, ed. Sport und Olympische S piele (Rheinbek bei hamburg: Rowohlt, 1984): 42. See also Kruger, â€Å"Neo-Olympismus zwischen Nationalismus und Internationalismus,† 529, 551. 16 Toward a Theory of Olympic Internationalism Scout Committee. 47 Appearances notwithstanding, the recruitment of these prestigious sponsors did not point to politically reactionary intentions on the part of the recruiters. In fact, Coubertin used his affiliations with the nobility to advance the cause of sportive internationalism against the resistance of stubborn nationalists. 48 Today, however, the IOC’s interest in recruiting royals appears to be less pragmatic than a response to the prestige-seeking needs of its current President. 2. Olympic Internationalism in the Age of Fascism Olympic internationalism during the Nazi period remains poorly understood, in part because the number of English-language commentaries remains limited. 49 My purpose in this section is to depart from the traditional emphasis on the 1936 Berlin Olympiad, which has been widely misunderstood as an isolated lapse on the part of the IOC, in order to place it in the larger politicalhistorical context where it belongs. We now know that Coubertin saw the â€Å"Nazi Olympics† as the culmination of his life’s work, and it is important to understand why he believed this and why in a sense he was right in doing so. For the Olympic movement during this period is best understood as a rightwing internationalism that was effectively coopted by the Nazis and their French and German sympathizers during the 1930s. This cooptation was made possible in part by an ideological compatibility between the IOC elite and the Nazis based on a shared ideal of aristocratic manhood and the value system that derived from their glorification of the physically perfect male as the ideal human being. It is important for us to understand this IOC-Nazi collaboration if only because, contrary to what many have doubtless 47. Saul Scheidlinger, â€Å"A Comparative Study of the Boy Scout Movement in Different National and Social Groups,† American Sociological Review , 13 (1948): 740, 741. 48. Kruger, â€Å"Neo-Olympismus zwischen Nationalismus und Internationalismus,† 549. 49. The traditional approach to the Olympic histoy of this period is to focus on the 1936 Berlin Olympiad as an exceptional event in the history of the movement. See, especially, Richard Mandell, The Nazi Olympics (New York: Macmillan, 1971; Arnd Kruger. Die olympischen Spiele 1936 und die Weltmeinung (Berlin, Munich, Frankfurt/M. : Verlag Bartels Wernitz KG, 1972): Duff Hart-Davis, Hitler’s Games: The 1936 Olympics (New York: Harper and Row, 1986). The indispensable sources for understanding the relationship between the IOC and the Nazis are Hans-Joachim Teichler, â€Å"Coubertin und das Dritte Retch,† Sportwissenschaft, 12 (1982): 18-53; Allen Guttmann, The Games Must Go On: Avery Brundage and the Olympic Movement (New York, Columbia University Press, 1984): and W. J. Murray, â€Å"France, Coubertin and the Nazi Olympics: The Response,† Olympika: The International Journal of Olympic Studies, 1 (1992): 4669. See also John Hoberman, The Olympic Crisis: Sport, Politics, and the Moral Order (New Rochelle, N. Y: Aristide D. Caratzas, Publisher, 1986). More recent publications on the Olympic movement during the interwar period include Stephen R. Wenn, â€Å"A Suitable Policy of Neutrality? FDR and the Question of American Participation in the 1936 Olympics,† International Journal of the History of Sport , 8 (1991): 319-335; Bill Murray, â€Å"Berlin in 1936: Old and New Work on the Nazi Olympics. † International Journal of the History of Sport, 9 (1992): 29-49: Martin Polley, â€Å"Olympic Diplomacy: The British Government and the Projected 1940 Olympic Games,† lnternational Journal of the History of Sport 9 (1992): 169-187: William J. Baker, â€Å"Muscular Marxism and the Chicago Counter-Olympics of 1932,† International Journal of the History of Sport 9 (1992): 397-410; Per Olof Holmang, â€Å"International Sports Organizations 1919-25 Sweden and the German Question. † International Journal of the History of Sport 9 (1992): 455-466; and Junko Tahara. â€Å"Count Michimasa Soyeshima and the Cancellation of the XII Olympiad in Tokyo: A Footnote to Olympic History,† lnternational Journal of the History of Sport, 9 (1992) 467-472. On the workers sport movement, see Jonathan F. Wagner, â€Å"Prague’s Socialist Olympics of 1934,† Canadian Journal of the History of Sport, 12 (1992): 1-18. 17 Journal of Sport History, Vol. 22, No. 1 (Spring 1995) assumed, it was not interrupted by the collapse of the Nazi empire in 1945. The postwar denazification of tainted European organizations, limited as it was, did not extend to the IOC, which continued to accommodate its Nazi members and their sympathizers in the old spirit of collegiality. The third section of this essay will examine how this ideological affinity group managed to preserve its traditional viewpoint (and the careers of some important adherents) well into the postwar era, and how its immunity to liberalhumanitarian influence remains a model for the IOC today. At this point, however, some historical background is required. The following narrative can be introduced by a so-called trivia question, to wit: Who was Jules Rimet, the man for whom the World Cup of soccer is named? I found the answer to this question in the April 1933 issue of the Deutsch-Franzosische Rundschau, one of several journals devoted to FrancoGerman cultural exchange and mutual understanding during the period between the world wars. On 18 March of that fateful year, the French national soccer team arrived in Berlin led by Jules Rimet, president of both the French Soccer Association and the international federation (FIFA). Waiting to greet the French delegation were the chairman of the German Soccer Association (DFB), representatives of numerous other sports federations, and the press. In a word, this occasion was a political and media event. The game between the French and German teams, played before 45,000 German spectators under a sparkling spring sky, somehow ended in a tie. Rimet himself observed that the German team had controlled the ball for three-quarters of the game, and the Parisian sports paper L’Auto said the Germans had, in effect, lost a game they should have won. At the traditional banquet after the ga How to cite Toward a Theory of Olympic Internationalism, Papers

Mobilizing Organizational Alignment through Strategic Human Resource D

Question: Describe about the Mobilizing Organizational Alignment through Strategic Human Resource Development? Answer: Introduction Motivation is needed in every organization in which employees work together to accomplish the objectives of an organization. Below mentioned are some of the motivational theories which are very much implemented by all the reputed organizations. The four mentioned theories work with different factors to improve the effectiveness of the companies and enhance the performance of the employees so that they grow professionally along with the growth of the company. Many organizations can improve the usage of these theories by their understanding and also the understanding the environment of the organization. Starting from fulfilling the basic needs to the needs for achievement every individual or an organization can use these models for better results. Maslows hierarchy theory of motivation: Abraham Maslowin his paper introduced Maslow's hierarchy theory of desires;in this theory of psychologyanticipated "A Theory of soul inspiration" inPsychological review,Maslow consequently unmitigated the initiative to comprise his annotations of humans' instinctive curiosity (Whiteley, 2002). His theories are comparable to several supplementary theories of psychology relating to human development, a few of which concentrates on elaborating the stages of escalation in humans. The terms "safety", "belongingness", "physiological", and "esteem", "love", "self-transcendence" and "self-actualization" to explain the prototype that human motivations normally shift from side to side (Amaratunga and Baldry, 2002). Maslow premeditated, what he used to call commendable people such asEleanor Roosevelt, Jane Addams, Albert Einstein, andFrederick Douglassrelatively than neuroticpeople or mentality sickness, while inscription "the lessons of crippled, undersized, undeveloped, and harmful specimens can give way only a cripple psychology."Maslow calculated the healthiest 1% of the college scholar people. Maslow's theory was entirely articulated in his 1954 volume ofMotivation and Personality.The chain of command remains a very famous structure insociologystudy, organization preparation (Furnham, Eracleous and Chamorroà ¢Ã¢â€š ¬Ã‚ Premuzic, 2009). Maslow's hierarchy of needs is frequently portrayed in a form of a pyramid where the largest, mainly essential levels of needs at the down and the requirements forself-actualizationat the peak (Hatzistavrou, 2006).At the same time as, the pyramid has turn out to be the de facto mode to characterize the hierarchy; Maslow in no way used a pyramid to explain these levels in his writings upon the subject matter (Kaiser et al., 2010). The main essential and crucial four levels of the pyramid enclose what Maslow used to call "d-needs" or "deficiency needs": esteem friendship and love, security. If these "deficiency needs" are not accomplished with the exclusion of the main fundamental requirements here may not be a corporal suggestion, but the human beings will feel nervous and stressed (Lee, 2007). Maslow's theory signifies that the main basic stage of needs have to be met earlier than the human being will stoutly desire, the higher level needs (Mcreynolds, 2012). Maslow also elaborated the term "metamotivation" to explain the inspiration of people who go further than the scale of the essential needs and go all-out for regular betterment (Pereira, de Campos and Camarini, 2012). The human psyche and intellect are compound and have similar processes operating on the same time (Wickramasinghe, 2010), thus a lot of unusual motivations from a variety of levels of Maslow's hierarchy may happen on the same time (Sevincer, Kluge and Oettingen, 2013). Maslow struts evidently about these levels and their contentment in expressions such as "general," "relative," and "primarily." In its place of stating that the personage focuses on a positive need at any specified time (Werbel and Balkin, 2010), Maslow affirmed that a definite need "dominates" the human mortal (Stone and Lukaszewski, 2009).Thus Maslow recognized the probability that the dissimilar levels of motivation might take place at any occasion in the human brains, but he focused on recognizing the basic kinds of motivation and categorize in which they be supposed to be met (Sambrook, 2011). Vrooms theory: Victor H. Vroom definesmotivationas a procedure leading choices in the middle of substitute forms of intentional activities, a procedure controlled by the human being. The human beings make choices on the basis of estimation of how fine the anticipated results of specified activities are going to equal up with or ultimately guide to the preferred results. Motivation is a invention of the individuals expectation that a assured attempt will guide to the planned presentation, the instrumentality of this presentation to achieve a firm consequence, and the predictability of this effect for the person, recognized asvalence (Sevincer, Kluge and Oettingen, 2013). Hertz bergs theory: Herzberg's motivation-hygiene theory is also known as the dual factor theory; it states that there are some definite factors in theplace of workthat leads towork satisfaction, whilst a split set of factors may be the reason of dissatisfaction (Poell, 2012). It was improved bypsychologistFrederick Herzberg, he theorizes that work satisfaction and job disappointment act separately of each other. Hertzberg called these factors in job satisfaction as motivators and factors that prevent dissatisfaction as hygiene. The factors which lead to the job satisfaction are: AchievementWork itselfRecognitionAdvancementResponsibility The factors that prevent dissatisfaction are. Working conditionsInterpersonal relationsCompany policyMoney Motivators are things which allow psychological development and growth in the job. It is very much related to self-actualization. Hygiene, when applied in an effective way can prevent dissatisfaction in a best possible way and if applied in a poor way then it can result in to negative feelings in the job. McClellands Theory: David McClelland focuses on three factors: need for achievement (n-ach) need for affiliation (n-affil) need for power (n-pow) People with n-ach respond well to the situations where the individuals can take their responsibility for searching solutions to the problems (Noelliste, 2013). This gives them personal satisfaction for the achievements. They dislike situations where failure or success is the consequence of chance (Mcreynolds, 2012). They set high goals for them which need much effort and abilities to achieve. They always want feedback for their performance (Otto and Dalbert, 2010). People with n-affil want affiliation have the desire to stay in the lime light and liked by others. They want to be in the part of some groups, relationships. They always give importance to relationships than accomplishments and friendship rather than power (Lengnick-Hall et al., 2009). People with n-pow have very effective in their position and demonstrate interest for influence people (Liang, Xie and Cui, 2010). It does not imply tyrannical behavior but a need to have an impact and be influential and effective in attaining the organizational goals (McDonnell, 2012). An assessment of the techniques used to implement each of these theories to a real life organization of your choice Maslows Hierarchy of Needs Maslows theory of motivation shows a pyramid in which there are set of five of needs which include physical needs, safety needs, social needs, esteem needs and finally the top of the pyramid has self-actualization needs. Each of these levels has different needs which an individual attains. The first need starts with shelter, food, warmth and drink and the last need ends with self-actualization which happens when an individual has personal fulfillment and growth. Maslows theory has also been broadly criticized because the theorist believed that when only one set of need is satisfied than only the next need is to be satisfied and it has however not contributed to the motivation understanding in the workplace (Stone and Lukaszewski, 2009) For example, Virgin Media technicians follow the Maslows Theory of needs to motivate their employees. They have included Your story framework for career progression, which includes frequent meetings to review progression, discuss the performance, and develop the plans that offer a ladder to the employees career to enable progress in their professional life which eventually adds to the companys growth. This step of VM helps the employees ensuring consistency and fairness thereby satisfying every need of the pyramid. Virgin Media believes in creating a work environment where their employees are motivated to work and give best possible results. The company also fulfills its corporate social responsibility ensuring access to the opportunities for employees so that they can meet their self-actualization needs. Vrooms Theory: Victor Vrooms Expectancy theory explains that why an individual choose to act in a particular behavior as different from others. This is a cognitive procedure which will evaluate the motivational force to the different options of behavior which is based on individual perception to the probability of attaining his or her preferred outcome. The following equation can be summarized: MF= Expectancy x Instrumentality x (Valence(s)) Google follows Vrooms Theory by demonstrating a day for their employees, for example The Google Life. For Google, employee engagement is very vital. They use three principles to offer innovative work culture which motivate3s its employees with multiple benefits and perks. Vrooms theory here at Google explains management and motivation in their organization. It believes that expectancy can be defined as the belief that higher efforts will result to better performance. Instrumentality is defined as the notion that an individual if performs well will receive a valued outcome and lastly valence refers to the desirability of the outcome. At Google, some benefits covers lunch or dinner for free, onsite physician and nurses, paid maternity leave, travel insurance, discounted legal aid, etc. Also Google motivates their employees by giving them an opportunity to not work for 8 hours of their week of work. They named this program as innovation time off where the employees are encouraged to fol low their passion and also be done with their lateral projects, while they come up with innovative or creative ideas which will help the company. This theory helps the employees of Google to stay engaged in their work and be loyal to its employer. Hertzbergs Theory: TESCO, a British MNC dealing with general merchandise and grocery is the second largest in the world in revenues and the third largest retailer in the world (profits). We all know profits and revenues come to a company because of their goodwill but there is one big factor to add to this notion and that is employees. TESCO admits that it is successful because they have the best employees and they keep their employees motivated so that they dont deviate from their rank in the market. TESCO knows that keeping the employees happy and motivated will bring more profits to them. Hertzberg defined a model which states that certain factors are motivators which satisfies the employees on the contrary certain other factors like hygiene creates dissatisfactions if they are missing or absent in a company. If hygiene factors are improve than dissatisfaction could be prevented but the improvements will not give motivation alone. Frederick Hertzberg showed that to motivate an employee truly a compan y needs to create a setting that makes the employees feel satisfied in the workplace. By paying attention to enabling satisfiers and hygiene factors, TESCO aspires to motivate its employees. It empowers the employees by providing timely and appropriate communication, involving staff in the decision making process and delegating responsibility. It organizes forums each year where staffs will be a part of the discussion and arguments on pay rise. By this it shows the recognition of work the people of TESCO does and also rewards them. The employees of TESCO can also have an impact on what food will go into the restaurant menu. Thus the employees get motivated because they are able to make choices which will augment and boost up their use in the restaurant. TESCO also provides chances to its managers and the staff to take a greater interest and share in their particular employment. As all employees is an individual with their own aspirations and needs, personal development and the procedure of reviews let recognition of their achievements and abilities with probable devel opment. The following diagram shows the two factors that and the sub-factors under each factor that constitutes the Two-Factor Theory of Motivation. McClellands Theory David McClelland theory of motivation proposes three types of needs. They are: Need for achievement Need for affiliation Need for power These three needs help in motivating the employees of an organization. Firstly, employees with need for achievement have the strong urge to be successful. These are employees who have high satisfaction to meet deadlines and targets, planning his career move. Secondly, employees with need for affiliation have the want to be accepted and liked by others. They prefer to interact with other staffs and be surrounded with friends. Finally, employees with high need for power controls and have an influence on others. It may be destructive and can hamper the environment of the company but if taken out in a proper way it will have positive impact. Multinational company Apple is famous for its product and services. They motivate their employees through motivational talk which leads them to achieve in their profession. They offer their employees with their products and services which make them feel wanted and accepted in the environment. This suffices the need for achievement. All the benefits such as discounts, insurance holidays, and gifts make the employees of Apple feel valued. This suffices their need for affiliation. Apart from the benefits and packages the employees receive they are also entitled to competitive pay. Some employees are also given the opportunity to train and motivate other staffs so as to increase the work quality of Apple. This suffices the need for power where one employee is influenced by the others. Demonstrate and determine the effectiveness of the implementation of these theories at these organizations The above explained theories of motivation have helped these organizations with various positive results. Motivation leads to increase in employee satisfaction which in turn leads to higher productivity and maximization of profits. Starting from Virgin Media to Apple, implementation of the respective above mentioned theories have increased the satisfaction of their employees. In a recent survey on employee satisfaction the employees of these companies laid down their views as to why they dont want to leave their respective companies. Employees of Virgin Media are motivated to stay in their company because they think that their needs are been taken care of by the company management. They say that the company offers some very good benefits which motivate them to work here. They have the permission to think and do things differently. The salary they get is very lucrative and they are surrounded with great work culture. The employees of Google are not far in praising their employer. Rese arch has confirmed that Google knows that they greater the employee happiness results to high productivity. Vrooms theory of motivation followed by Google, has increased to employee instrumentality and valence. The employees at Google now know that if they perform they will be valued and rewarded which acts a great motivational factor. Google has invested more in their employees and the results are very good. Motivation has led to a driving force in the employees which make them happy and deliver work effectively. TESCO motivates their employees by way of Hertzberg Theory of motivation. They are trained in their skills, knowledge and job satisfaction so that they work well as a result the customers is satisfied. They look into the motivators and prevent dissatisfaction in hygiene. Timely reward and recognition are two factors which prevents their employees from dissatisfaction. Lastly Apple is a successful company for its satisfied employees. The company practices radical management and their motto is to delight the customers. Employees of Apple get satisfied with the motivational speeches given by Steve Jobs; they say that their senior employees are very motivating. They make them feel wanted in the office environment. They are also happy with the competitive pay which makes them feel the need for affiliation. Recommendations as to how the implementation of these techniques could be improved in the future at your chosen organization: Maslows Theory for motivation has given many companies a wide range of satisfied employees which has increased the productivity of the company. Virgin Media should also look into the other needs in the pyramid apart from physical need and self-actualization need so that there is a balance between all the levels in the pyramid. Employees of Google never complain about their employer. They are satisfied with the motivational theory carried out by the company. Apart from Vrooms motivation theory, Google should also take the help of other motivational theories which will help them and also their employees. Maslows theory of motivation can be of help where the company can focus on the self actualization need of the employees. Apart from focusing on enhancing on skills and knowledge of the employees, TESCO should also give high focus on the hygiene factors. 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